References

Parenthetical citations direct attention to the more detailed reference list, which provides complete source information. This section first delves into APSA’s standard rules on turning a source into an appropriate reference. This is followed by additional details organized by type of reference. At the end of the section, specific rules about the reference list itself are given.

As opposed to the notes and bibliography style that some professions utilize, the author-date style has the year of publication as the second element of a reference, instead of the last. This may be a change for some, but otherwise, the basic reference guidelines are the same as the notes and bibliography style.

Reference lists must list each source used in the author’s research. Each reference must also explicitly link to at least one parenthetical citation in the manuscript. Note that selected and annotated reference lists, as well as reference essays, will not be accepted. It is the sole responsibility of the author, not the journal’s editorial team, to provide an accurate reference list. Always reference the version of the source that is consulted while researching.

General Format

• Each part of a reference is separated by a period, except when otherwise indicated. Each part begins with a capital letter unless it is a lowercase part of an author’s, editor’s, or translator’s name.

1. Name

• Author’s, editor’s, or translator’s names should be given as they appear with the source. This is true for the style in which the names are written and, for multiauthored sources, the order of the names. Be respectful of naming preferences. However, if necessary for identification, opt for the fuller form of the name (including full first names and middle initials).
• The first (or only) author’s, editor’s, or translator’s name is always inverted in a reference (i.e., last name, first name). In multiauthored sources, the other authors’ names are not inverted, and are separated by commas. Use and, not an ampersand (&), before the final given name. Do not use et al. in a reference as one would in a parenthetical citation, unless there are ten or more authors. In that case, list the first seven authors and then use et al. (14.76).
• If the source was published by an organization, association, or corporation and does not carry an author’s name, the organization is listed as the author, even if it is also the publisher (14.84). Abbreviations can be used in references in this instance. However, if abbreviations are used for the name of the organization, it must be followed by the full name in parentheses in the first (or only) reference (15.27).
• When no author is associated with a source, but an editor(s) or translator(s) is, those names take the place of the author’s name. The abbreviations ed. or eds., or trans. follows the name(s), preceded by a comma (14.103).
• If the source does not have an author, editor, translator, organization, association, or corporation that sponsored it, the title should be used in place of the name.

2. Special Cases

• If two or more authors, editors, or translators share the same last name, the last name is repeated in the reference, even if it not repeated in the source itself (14.77).
• The term Anonymous to represent an author’s, editor’s, or translator’s name for a source should be avoided unless the source is explicitly attributed to ‘Anonymous’ or when several anonymous works need to be grouped. Instead, the reference should begin with the title of the source (14.79).
• Brackets with the author’s, editor’s, or translator’s name inside can be used when the author’s name was omitted from the source but is known. If there is measurable certainty of the name, but not complete certainty, a question mark can be included within the brackets after the name (14.79).
• If a pseudonym needs to be used, [pseud.] should follow the name in the reference list, but be omitted from parenthetical text citations (14.80). If the pseudonym is widely known, it should be treated like a regular name (e.g., Mark Twain).
• Even if the last name of an author, editor, or translator was changed for any reason (e.g., marriage), continue to use the name published with the source (14.82).

3. Year

• The year of publication is usually the only part of the date needed in a reference. For first editions of sources, this date is the same as the copyright date.
• When numerous years are listed with the copyright, use the year that the most recent (14.142). When multiple volumes of a multivolume source are cited together, give a closed range, or, if unfinished, open range of years (14.144). For reprints, include the original copyright date first, in brackets, and then give the reprint date.
• When the year of publication cannot be located, n.d. must take its place (14.145). When the publication is forthcoming, the term forthcoming, set in roman, takes the place of the year (14.146).

4. Titles of Work

• Spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation in the original title should be preserved with a few exceptions. Words in full capitals should be changed to uppercase and lowercase, headline-style capitalization should be applied throughout, and ampersands can be changed to and. Numbers should remain spelled out or given as numerals according to the original source.
• If the existing punctuation between the title and the subtitle is anything other than a colon, question mark, or exclamation point, it should be changed to a colon, followed by a space, and italicized if the title is italicized. The first word of the subtitle after the colon should be capitalized (14.88).
• Sentence-style capitalization is often used with non-English titles and should not be changed (14.98). If the English translation of the title is given, the original title should follow enclosed in brackets, in roman font, and capitalized sentence-style (14.99). If only the English translated-title is given, give the original language in brackets with in preceding it, following the title.

Miyamoto, Yoshio. 1942. Hoso to kokka [Broadcasting and the national defense state]. Tokyo: Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai.

Miyamoto, Yoshio. 1942. Broadcasting and the National Defense State [in Japanese]. Tokyo: Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai.

5. Volume and Numbers

• For volume and page numbers, Arabic numerals should be used. The exception is if the source has any page numbers with roman numerals (14.147).
• First and last page numbers should be used and indicated as a range (14.148). Whereas parenthetical citations point to a specifically contextual page or range of pages, references need to include the page numbers of the entire section, chapter, or article (14.22).
• p. and pp. should be omitted in all circumstances, except for when ambiguity needs to be clarified (14.151).
• When a volume number is relevant, it should precede the page numbers and a colon should be inserted between the two, with a space (14.152).
• With electronic sources, such as ebooks, reflowable or scrollable text can affect page number citation. When this is the case, a chapter number or section heading should be used instead (14.160).

6. DOIs or URLs

• Whenever a source is found, read, or used online, a direct link that leads the reader to the source should be included. It is never acceptable to only include a link to an online source, it must be included with other citation data (14.6). The preferred order for citing online sources is the following: (1) DOI (digital object identifier) numerals, (2) a permalink URL (uniform resource locator), and (3) a short version of the URL.
• A DOI can easily be found in databases, and only requires the numerals and slashes after .org/ stated as doi: and then the numerals.

• A permalink is a link often provided by the website, which is a permanent URL instead of an internal or time-sensitive URL.

• Finally, a short version of the URL cuts off extraneous numerals (dictating when the site was accessed, usually after a question mark) (14.7–14.10).
• URLs should be presented in full, beginning with the protocol (i.e., http or https). The trailing slash (/), sometimes at the end of a URL, is part of the URL and should be included. Capitalization of components in the URL should be respected as some may be case sensitive. Punctuate sentences and citations with URLs in them as normal, generally with a period after them (14.17).
• Including an access date in a reference is only necessary if a publication or revision date cannot be determined from the source (14.12). Nevertheless, it does not hurt to record access dates, or, in the case that the source’s content will definitely change, preserving a permanent record of the source via a permanent link creation service such as perma.cc (14.15).

Books

• The elements listed below are often additions or slight changes to the generalized format described in the previous subsection, taken from a book’s front matter (14.100):

1. 1. Full name of author(s), editor(s), translator(s) or, if none are listed, the name of the institution standing in for one
   2. Year of publication
   3. Full title, including subtitle if applicable Chapter information, if applicable
   4. Edition, if not the first, if applicable
   5. Series title, if applicable
   6. Editor, compiler, or translator, if there are any also listed
   7. Number of the volume(s) cited, if applicable
   8. Page number or numbers of a section or chapter if applicable
   9. Information on the publisher, city, and date published
   10. Electronic book information, if applicable
   11. DOI, or URL, if applicable

   1. Chapters

   • When a specific chapter needs to be referenced, the title used should be the title of the chapter, enclosed in quotation marks, followed by In, followed by the title of the book itself, italicized. The chapter’s page numbers should follow the title of the book itself, preceded by a comma (14.106). Another acceptable format that does not include page numbers is to include Chap. and the number in front of in.

   Halchin, L. Elaine. 2001. “And This Parent Went to Market: Education as Public Versus Private Good.” In School Choice in the Real World, eds. Robert Maranto, Scott Milliman, Frederick Hess and April Gresham, 39–57. Boulder, CO: Westview.

   Halchin, L. Elaine. 2001. “And This Parent Went to Market: Education as Public Versus Private Good.” Chap. 1 in School Choice in the Real World, eds. Robert Maranto, Scott Milliman, Frederick Hess and April Gresham. Boulder, CO: Westview.

   • If the reference is to an introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword the general term is used before the title of the work as a stand-in for a chapter title (14.110).

   2. Edition

   • When an edition other than the first is used, the cardinal numeral of the edition follows the title in the reference (whether chapter information is provided or not), preceded by a comma (14.113). It should not be italicized, even though the title is.

   Davidson, Roger H., Walter J. Oleszek, Frances E. Lee, and Eric Schickler. 2016. Congress and Its Members, 14th edition. Washington, DC: CQ Press.

   Hall, Peter Dobkin. 2006. “A Historical Overview of Philanthropy, Voluntary Associations, and Nonprofit Organizations in the United States, 1600–2000.” In The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook, 2nd edition, eds. W. W. Powell and R. Steinberg, 32–65. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

   3. Series

   • When series names are included, they are neither italicized nor placed in quotation marks. They follow the individual title of the book. The number of the book in the series, as well as the series editor, can be included following the series title (14.123).
   • Multivolume sources within a series include the volume number after the title, similar to chapter numbers (14.125).

   4. Additional Editors, Translators, or Compilers

   • As per APSA style, when the name of the editor(s) or translator(s) appears alongside an author’s or authors’ name(s), the name of the editor(s) or translator(s) appears after the title in the reference. Use the same abbreviations: ed. or eds., comp. or comps., or trans. This should be preceded by a comma, not a period. The name(s) should not be inverted (14.104).

   Hermann, Margaret G. 1984. “Personality and Foreign Policy Decision Making: A Study of Fifty-Three Heads of Government.” In Foreign Policy Decision Making, eds. Donald A. Sylvan and Steve Chan, 133–52. New York: Praeger.

   5. Multivolume Works

   • When the entirety of a multivolume work is cited, the total number of volumes is given after the title of the work. The date of publication becomes an inclusive range, if necessary (14.117).

   Hume, David. 1932. The Letters of David Hume, 2 vols., ed. J. Y. T. Greig. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

   • When only one volume is of interest, the entire work is cited after the title of the volume with Vol., the numeral, and of, preceding the title of the entire work, similar to a chapter (14.119).

   Hume, David. 1932. Volume II 1766–1776, Vol. 2 of The Letters of David Hume, ed. J. Y. T. Greig. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

   • If the multivolume work has a general editor and a different or extra editor for the referenced volume, ed. is added and the names are given accordingly (14.122).

   6. Publication Information

   • When including publication information, the order is: (1) place of publication, if given, followed by a colon and (2) the publisher (14.127).
   • The place of publication is where the publisher’s main editorial offices are. If two or more locations are given, only include the location listed first (14.129).
   • If the place of publication is unknown or confusing to readers, the two-letter postal code can be added for states, or, if another country, the country’s name spelled out (14.130). City names in other languages should be translated or transformed into their preferred English forms (14.131).
   • The, Inc., Co., Press, or Publisher are usually omitted from the publisher’s name except for university presses (14.134). If a state’s name is part of a university press name, omit it from the place of publication information.

   Cambridge University Press

   Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press

   • And or an ampersand (&) may be used in a publisher’s name, depending on how the information is published with the source (14.135).
   • No part of a publisher’s name should be translated (14.136).
   • If self-published, do not state so anywhere in the reference, as it will violate anonymity. Instead, follow regular reference guidelines and include the platform or website on which the book was published in lieu of a publisher’s place and name. With books published before 1900, it is acceptable to omit the publisher’s name, leaving just the location (14.128).
   • With ebooks, indicate which platform was used following the publication information. If the file format is specified, it should also be included (14.159).

   Amazon Kindle PDF

   • If a source is unpublished, include Unpublished manuscript after the title and the last modified date of the version consulted (14.216).

   Periodicals

   • Many of the rules applicable to books are applicable to periodicals including the treatment of authors, editors or translators, years, titles, and volume and page numbers. The elements listed are included, where applicable, in each reference on a reference list, taken from the periodical’s front matter (14.165):
   1. 1. Full name of author(s), editor(s), translator(s) or, if none are listed, the name of the institution standing in for one
      2. Year of publication
      3. Full title, including subtitle if applicable
      4. Title of periodical
      5. Number of the volume(s) cited
      6. Number of the issue(s) cited
      7. Page number range of the article
      8. DOI, URL, or database name, if applicable
      • In is not used with periodicals as it is with chapters in a book.

      Aldrich, John H. 1980. “A Dynamic Model of Presidential Nomination Campaigns.” American Political Science Review 74 (3): 651–69.

      • Titles of articles themselves are set in roman and placed in quotation marks (14.169). Periodical titles are set in italics. Full periodical names, excluding the, should always be given (14.170).
      • The volume number follows the periodical title in roman with no punctuation intervening. If an issue number is available, include it in parentheses after the volume number. Place a colon after the issue number with a space preceding the page numbers. If no issue number is given, the month/season can appear in parentheses instead (14.171). Forthcoming can take the place of the month/season and year if it has yet to be published (14.172).
      • Special issues of periodicals can be indicated before the title of the periodical (e.g., Special issue of), if not given a special number (i.e., S2) (14.178).
      • Treat abstracts like periodical articles, but include the word abstract before the title of the periodical (14.186).
      • For reviews, include the review’s title in the title spot, then add the words Review of followed by the name of the reviewed work and its author or sponsor.

      Chambers, Simone. 2018. “Against Democracy. By Jason Brennan.” Review of Against Democracy, Jason Brennan. Perspectives on Politics 16 (2): 503–5. doi: 10.1017/S153759271800066X.

      • Page numbers rarely need to be given with newspapers and magazines (14.188). Instead of volume, issue, and page numbers, include the publication month and day(s).

      Prufer, Olaf. 1964. “The Hopewell Cult.” Scientific American, December 13–15.

      • Regular columns in newspapers and magazines are capitalized headline-style but are not put in quotation marks (14.190).
      • Titles of newspapers may need a city or country added afterward in parentheses to clarify its location, especially if in a different language (14.193).

      Websites, Blogs & Social Media

      • The elements listed are included, where applicable, in each reference on a reference list, taken from the website, blog, or social media platform:
      1. 1. Full name of author(s), editor(s), translator(s) or, if none are listed, the name of the institution standing in for one Screenname in parentheses or standing alone if from social media
         2. Year of publication
         3. Full title of the page or first 160 characters of the post (with quotes)
         4. Title of the website, blog, or platform
         5. Month, day, time, if applicable
         6. DOI, URL, or database name, if applicable
         • For news websites, add the time stamp of the article in the date information if it is readily available online, as news stories are frequently updated (14.191).
         • Blog posts are cited like online newspaper articles, with blog added in brackets after the title of the blog (14.208).

         Sides, John. 2008. “Who Will Win the Nominations?” The Monkey Cage [blog], January 3. http://themonkeycage.org/2008/01/ who_will_win_the_nominations/.

         • Email lists and forums are considered social media platforms, so utilize screennames in references.
         • When applicable, comments can just be cited in the text in parentheses by including a screenname and date information.

         Other Forms of Communication

         • Manuscript collections are identified by the author of the item(s) in the collection and the depository (including location) of the collection (14.222).
         • Classic Greek and Latin references and reference work (encyclopedias, dictionaries) references should be made run in with the text or in endnotes, not in the reference list (14.232, 14.242). Modern editions, cited by page numbers, must be a part of the reference list (14.251).
         • Audiovisual content should be cited with the name of the creator, the date of publication, the title of the work, the publisher, information about the medium or format, and a URL, if applicable (14.261).
         • If the communication is a letter, email, postcard, etc., information such as the sender, recipient, and the date should be included in place of a chapter title (14.111). Do not include the sender or recipient’s addresses or specific contact information unless requested by the sender or recipient.
         • Titles of theses and dissertations should be treated like books, except they do not appear in italics, but quotation marks. The words PhD diss. should appear after the title (14.215).

         Munger, Frank J. 1955. “Two-Party Politics in the State of Indiana.” PhD diss. [or Master’s thesis.] Harvard University.55

         • Lectures and presentations should include presented at followed by location information (14.217).

         Mefford, Dwain, and Brian Ripley. 1987. “The Cognitive Foundation of Regime Theory.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago.

         • Treat pamphlets, reports, brochures, and similar mediums as books (14.220).
         • News and press releases should be treated similarly to periodical articles; do not italicize the names of news services (14.200).
         • Standalone published interviews (i.e., not published with a title) should be treated as a periodical, using the name of the interviewee as the author and including interviewed by and the name of the interviewer after the title. If the interview was done for the manuscript, use interviewed by the author to maintain anonymity.
         • Research interviews and ethnographic data, on the other hand, should be cited only run in with the text or in endnotes. Use the following format as applicable: the interviewee, any date information, the interviewer, and location. Use interviewed by author if necessary to maintain anonymity.

         Respondent 32. 2008. Interviewed by Author. New York City.

         Legal and Public Documents

         • The following are general guidelines for authors who need to cite legal and public documents in their manuscript. For authors who cite these types of documents often, APSA encourages seeking out and supplementing detailed and specific instructions from The Bluebook, by the Harvard Law Review Association.
         • Legal and public documents are not included on a reference list. Authors should make every effort to integrate the reference directly into the text. However, depending on the reference’s size, the surrounding sentence structure, and the level of detail desired, these documents can also be cited in an endnote or in a standalone parenthetical citation (14.271).
         • The first page number of the document or case is cited directly after the name with no intervening punctuation, and then specific page numbers are given, separated by a comma. These can be sections or paragraphs, and should include the corresponding symbols (14.273). Certain abbreviations and number formatting rules for legal and public documents do not follow the rules outlined elsewhere in this book (14.274): Abbreviations usually use periods or apostrophes
         • Common abbreviations should be capitalized (e.g., No., Sess.)
         • In parenthetical citations and endnote citations, ordinal numbers should use the following format: 2d, 3d; not: 2nd, 3rd

         1. Cases and Court Decisions

         • When cited, full case names are set in roman. This differs from running text, where any version of a case name is italicized (14.276).
         • On an applicable basis, after the case name and the year, set off by commas, comes the volume number, the abbreviated name of the reporter, the ordinal series number of the reporter (following the altered number format above), the opening page of the decision, and then the actual page cited, set off by another comma. Following this is the abbreviated name of the court and the year the decision was made, in parentheses.

         A. Special Cases

         • For Supreme Court decisions, use the United States Reports, abbreviated U.S. in citations. Cases not yet published can be cited to the Supreme Court Reporter, abbreviated S. Ct. in citations. With Supreme Court decisions, the name of the court within the parentheses may be omitted (14.277).

         Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584 (2015).

         • Lower federal court decisions can be cited to the Federal Reporter, abbreviated F. in citations, or the Federal Supplement, abbreviated F. Supp. in citations (14.278).

         Eaton v. IBM Corp., 925 F. Supp. 487 (S.D. Tex. 1996).

         2. Constitutions

         • Use roman numerals for articles and amendment numbers, but Arabic numerals for subdivisions (14.280).

         U.S. Const. art. I, § 4, cl. 2.

         3. Legislative and Executive Documents

         A. Laws and Statutes

         • These include public laws (Pub. L.), which are found in volumes of the United States Statutes at Large (Stat.) and later included in the United States Code (U.S.C.). Note that the No. of the law contains the number of the Congress adjoined with the document number by a hyphen.

         Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107–296, 116 Stat. 2135 (2012).

         B. Bills and Resolutions

         • For bills and resolutions originating from the House of Representatives, use H.R. or H.R. Res. accordingly as abbreviated forms. For those from the Senate, use S. and S. Res. accordingly.

         Safe and Accurate Food Labeling Act of 2015, H.R. 1599, 114th Cong. (2015).

         C. Hearings

         • Use the full given title of the hearing in italics, and add, if necessary, the names of the committees included. At the end of the citation include, in parentheses, the speaker’s name, title, and affiliation.
         • Facebook, Social Media Privacy, and the Use and Abuse of Data: Joint Hearing Before the S. Comm. on the Judiciary and the S. Comm. on Commerce, Science and Transportation, 115th Cong. (2018) (statement of Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook).

         D. Congressional Reports and Documents

         • For reports and documents originating from the House of Representatives, use H.R. Rep. or H.R. Doc. accordingly as abbreviated forms. For those from the Senate, use S. Rep. and S. Doc. accordingly.

         E. Congressional Debates

         • The reference begins with the volume of Congressional Record (Cong. Rec.), or, for debates before 1873, the Annals of the Congress of the United States (Annals of Cong.), the Register of Debates (Reg. Deb.), or the Congressional Globe (Cong. Globe) where debates are published by the government. The page number and date follow.

         112 Cong. Rec. 16 (1996).

         F. State Laws and Municipal Ordinances

         • Titles for state codes are set in roman type, and the date refers to the year the current code was published. These will vary slightly state to state.

         Wis. Stat. § 36.09(3) 2015

         G. Presidential Documents

         • Proclamations, executive orders, vetoes, and addresses are published in the Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents (Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc.) and in the Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Pub. Papers). Proclamations and executive orders are also published in the Federal Register (Fed. Reg.) and title 3 of the Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.).

         Proclamation No. 5142, 49 Fed. Reg. 341 (1984).

         H. Treaties

         • Give the full name, in roman type, and the parties that signed the treaty after, separated by a comma. After the parties are given, provide the exact date the treaty was signed, and the volume and treaty number along with the reporter name. Before the 1950s, US treaties were published unofficially in the Treaty Series (T.S.) or the Executive Agreement Series (E.A.S.). After the 1950s, the reporters are the United States Treaties and Other International Agreements (U.S.T.), and the Treaties and Other International Acts Series (T.I.A.S.). International treaties are published in the United Nations Treaty Series (U.N.T.S.), or were published in its predecessor, the League of Nations Treaty Series (L.N.T.S.).

         Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, U.S.-U.K.-U.S.S.R., Aug. 5, 1963, 14 U.S.T. 1313.

         Datasets, Databases & Analysis Packages

         • Database references should be both modeled on the official citations provided by the database and adapted to APSA style. For example: move the year to match author-date format; if provided a study number, add the study number of the study after the title in parentheses; if given a date of study distribution, use that date as the publication date information; and so on.

         Eldersveld, Samuel J., John E. Jackson, M. Kent Jennings, Kenneth Lieberthal, Melanie Manion, Michael Oksenberg, Zhefu Chen, Hefeng He, Mingming Shen, Qingkui Xie, Ming Yang, and Fengchun Yang. 1996. Four-County Study of Chinese Local Government and Political Economy, 1990 [computer file] (Study #6805). ICPSR version. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan/ Beijing, China: Beijing University [producers], 1994. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 1996.

         • If analysis packages are used (e.g., Amelia, a missing data interpolation statistical analysis package), they should be referenced in the text and an explanatory note should attribute the package to its creator.

         Reference List

         Reference List

         1. General Format

         • List all references alphabetically by the author’s last name. Alphabetize via a letter-by-letter system (14.65). Single-authored sources precede multiauthored sources beginning with the same last name (14.66). Multiauthored sources with the same name (first and last) of the first author should continue to be alphabetized by the second author’s first name. When a source cannot be alphabetized by the author’s name, alphabetize it by (in descending order): year (oldest to newest), editor’s name, title, or descriptive phrase (14.62). When alphabetizing by article title, an initial article is ignored (14.79). Undated or forthcoming books follow all dated works (15.18).
         • Avoid the use of ibid., idem, f., ff., op. cit. and loc. cit. (14.34–14.36). While these Latin abbreviations have been used for years in academia, they do not translate well, if at all, to online publication formats. Further, replacing the name in successive references of the same author(s) with three em-dashes (———) is no longer recommended by Chicago. It complicates the digitization process, does not align with online database sorting, and makes the source impractical outside of the context of the reference list (14.67).
         • When citing several sources by the same author, place them in chronological order, with the earliest single-authored source first, followed by multiauthored sources (15.16). When citing multiple sources from by the same author from the same year, references should be alphabetized by title (excluding any initial article), with letters attached to the year (i.e., 2009a; 2009b; 2009c)

         Sections:

         • General Format
         • Books
         • Periodicals
         • Websites, Blogs & Social Media
         • Other Forms of Communication
         • Legal and Public Documents
         • Datasets, Databases & Analysis
         • Packages
         • Reference List